AQUATER PAPER 4.7I THE SUPER PARTICLE AS A COSMIC RAY

For updated version—see www.Aquater2050.com/2015/11/

Abstract

In a previous paper (ref 1, AP4.7), a self-consistent theory called Model 1 was developed to answer ten major connected questions in astrophysics. The most important of these questions are:

  • How can dark matter be explained and described?
  • How can dark energy be explained and described?
  • Where do the extremely high-energy cosmic rays that occur beyond the GZK cutoff come from?

 

Model 1 appears to successfully answer these questions. The unique features of this model are:

  • There are two spaces in the universe, particle space and quantum vacuum space. A potential barrier separates them. One space contains visible matter, and the other space contains dark matter.
  • There is a cycling of mass-energy between these spaces through the black holes that connect them. Particles pass from our space through black holes where they are converted into super particles that operate with unified force. They then pass into the high-energy vacuum space where they become dark matter operating behind the potential barrier.
  • Dark matter particles interact with each other and form a slowly building and moving bubble centered on a galaxy. The bubbles of dark matter are connected to each other by corridors of dark matter forming a cosmic web, which guides the development of new galaxies.
  • There, behind a potential barrier, the dark matter particles gain energy, build up in number and eventually exceed the ability of the barrier to contain them. They then explode back into particle space as a big bang. This process repeats to make an endless series of new universes.
  • After the big bang exhausts itself, super particles continue to tunnel through the barrier into particle space. The super particles are unstable and break down into particles (protons) with extreme kinetic energy. In doing so, they give up potential energy into particle space. The potential energy gradually builds up to become the dark energy that we observe as the cause of our accelerating, expanding universe. The extreme energy protons are observed as cosmic rays with energy between the energy of force unification and the Planck energy, which is beyond the GZK cutoff.  

In working out this model, some problems arose that are connected with it. A fundamental issue arose with respect to ultra high-energy cosmic rays (UHECR’s). It became important to ask if UHECR’s could be decomposed super particles-i.e. super particles whose symmetry has been spontaneously broken. This problem will be addressed here. 

 

The Problem

Blasi (Blasi, 1) describes the problem of a set of ultra high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs), which are observed in an energy range where there should be no cosmic rays. The reason is as follows. A cosmic ray is usually a very high-energy proton. When it interacts with the earth’s upper atmosphere, it produces gammas that penetrate to earth and are detected there. We should note that sometimes the cosmic rays are actually gammas. It was found, using the standard model of particle physics, that a proton with energy above a certain energy (the GZK cutoff ~ 4×1019 eV or ~ 4×1010 GeV), interacts with the microwave background in particle space to form other particles (pions). Since microwave background is everywhere, protons with extremely high energy (i.e. from super nova etc.) should not last very long in particle space. This means that particle space should be dark above this energy unless the source is common within our galaxy. Yet such sources (neutron stars, AGN’s, white dwarfs, radio lobes, etc) are not common enough in our galaxy and especially in our neighborhood to account for the UHECR’s we observe. Yet such cosmic rays are observed (Blasi, 2).

 

The Observed Data

The observations, as described in Blasi (Blasi, 2) are as follows. Cosmic rays have been observed from ~ 0.1 GeV up to 3 x 1011 GeV. We note:

  • A total of 59 events have been observed above 4 x 1010 GeV. The spectrum of these events from ~5 GeV to ~106 GeV has a power law increase with slope of ~ 2.7. From  ~106 GeV to ~1010 GeV, the slope increases to ~ 3.1. At energies larger than 1010 GeV, the spectrum begins to flatten out.
  • The 59 events appear to be isotropic on the large scale..
  • On the small scale, 5 possible doublets and 1 possible triplet were found.
  • The primaries appear to be mostly protons. A recent study indicates less than 30% are possible photon primaries.

 

It should be noted that the GZK cutoff might actually be at higher energy (E > 1011 GeV) due to non-linear relativity effects (Magueijo, 32).

 

 

The Solution

Model 1 predicts high-energy cosmic rays with the following characteristics.

  • Super particles will tunnel through the barrier between vacuum space and particle space with energies in a Gaussian distribution in the range ~10to1019 GeV. The lower portion of the Gaussian is dramatically reduced, however, because the barrier passes high-energy super particles easier than low ones (see Appendix 1). In particle space, they are unstable, so they break down (through spontaneous symmetry breaking) into extremely high-energy protons, giving up its extra potential energy to the particle space vacuum. The resulting protons in particle space will have energy in the range 106 to 1019 GeV. As noted above, super particles with energy much less than ~106 GeV will provide little contribution because of the small probability of passage through the barrier.
  • The super particles in vacuum space have a Gaussian distribution with a mean, which depends on the age of the universe. Thus:

–         For a young universe, the mean will be low (energy range ~102 to ~106 GeV), because the super particles coming in from the black hole (see ref 3, AP4.7C) meet a relatively large, empty vacuum space, so they expand into the volume and their temperature goes down.

–         For a youthful, but fertile universe, the mean will be modest (energy range ~106 to ~1010 GeV), because the addition of more energetic super particles will have increased the particle temperature and density in vacuum space, and the cosmic net is beginning to build, so conditions are right for making galaxies.

–         For a mature universe, the mean will be medium (energy range ~1010 to 1018 GeV), because the super particle temperature and density will have increased enough to generate a mature cosmic net (see ref 4, AP4.7B), and the generation of galaxies along the net will be rapid.

–         For an aging universe, the mean will be high (energy range ~1018 to 1019 GeV), because the super particle temperature and density will have increased enough to be near to the Planck energy preparing for a new big bang.

  • The protons that result in particle space will be isotropic on the large scale, because they come from an isotropic distribution of super particles in thermodynamic equilibrium in vacuum space.
  • On the small scale, doublets and triplets can form from reactions in particle space.
  • High-energy protons will result from the super particles, but collisions with particles in particle space can cause gammas.

 

The spectrum of the UHECR’s match the Model 1 spectrum for early in the “mature universe” stage. The (~106 to 1010 GeV) slope shows the spectrum of ordinary cosmic rays plus the rising contribution of the cosmic rays caused by the low energy tail of the super particle Gaussian. The rollover beyond ~1010 GeV is caused by the peak and then the drop-off of super particles as the Gaussian tails off. The isotropy, the doublets and triplets and the dominance of protons match the data satisfactorily. 

 

Note that a shift (if any) of the GZV cutoff to a higher value has no impact on this match, because it only impacts what happens to the particles after entering particle space. Such a shift makes other sources for UHECR’s possible in terms of the cutoff. However, the generation sources and the spectrum of the protons produced do not appear to match those observed. Nonetheless getting cosmic ray data for events up to 1019 GeV will clarify this issue by showing any new cutoffs.

 

Summary and Conclusions

Ultra high energy cosmic rays (UHECR’s} have been studied to find their origin and characteristics. They are found to match the characteristics of Model 1 super particles (dark matter) that have tunneled through the barrier separating vacuum space from particle space in Model 1 described above. After tunneling, they broke down into a UHECR proton, which was observed as a cosmic ray. The observed spectrum matches the expected spectrum of a “mature universe”, which means that the mean energy of the super particle Gaussian distribution of dark matter is at ~1010 GeV. With time, the mean will increase until it reaches ~1019 GeV, and then it will start a new big bang.

 

 

Appendix 1

Here we have set up the equations for a super particle with spherical vacuum barrier of radius ro and thickness a. Inside the radius is vacuum space. Outside the radius is the barrier shell of thickness a, and outside the shell is particle space.

 

We have found the solution and used it to generate the transmission through the barrier (T) (see ref 4, AP4.7A), which is as follows:

 

            If E>V

 

            T = 1/(1+V02sin2(k1a)/4E(E-V0)

           

            If E<V,

 

            T = 1/(1+Vo2 sinh2(k1a)/4E(V0-E),

 

            Where k1= (8p2m(V0-E)/h2)) 1/2

 

The rate of passage of a particle through the spherical vacuum barrier is:

 

            R = T h/2p k1

 

The best fit of the very rough data available to the writer is:

 

            ro = 10-5 cm

            a = 10-7 cm

 

 

References

  1. P. Blasi, “The Highest Energy Particles in the Universe: the Mystery and its Possible Solutions”, arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0110401.pdf
  2. J. Magueijo, New Varying Speed of Light Theories, arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0305457.pdf
  3. L. H. Wald, “AP4.7C DARK MATTER RATE EQUATIONS” www.Aquater2050.com/2015/08/
  4. L. H. Wald, “AP4.7A SUPER PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS” www.Aquater2050.com/2015/08/