Abstract

There are currently eight connected major unanswered questions in astrophysics. The most important of these are:

• How can dark matter be explained and described?
• How can dark energy be explained and described?
• Where do the extremely high-energy cosmic rays that occur in the energy range beyond the GZK cutoff come from?

A self-consistent theory that consists of many parts has been developed that answers these questions quantitatively. These parts have been collected into a self-consistent set, which will be referred to as Model W1 or in these Aquater Papers simply as Model 1. The unique features of this model are:

• There are two spaces in the universe, particle space and quantum vacuum space. A potential barrier separates them. One space contains visible matter, and the other space contains dark matter.

• There is a cycling of mass-energy between these spaces through the black holes that connect them. Particles pass from our space through black holes where they are converted into super particles that operate with unified force. They then pass into the high-energy vacuum space where they become dark matter operating behind the potential barrier.

• Dark matter particles interact with each other and form a slowly building and moving bubble centered on a galaxy. Corridors of dark matter forming a cosmic web, which guide the development of new galaxies connect the bubbles of dark matter to each other.

• There, behind a potential barrier, the dark matter particles gain energy, build up in number and eventually exceed the ability of the barrier to contain them. They then explode back into particle space as a big bang. This process repeats to make a long series of new universes.

• After the big bang exhausts itself, super particles continue to tunnel through the barrier into particle space. The super particles are unstable and break down into particles with extreme kinetic energy. In doing so, they give up potential energy into particle space. The potential energy gradually builds up to become the dark energy that we observe as the cause of our accelerating, expanding universe. The extreme energy protons are observed as cosmic rays with energy between the energy of force unification and the Planck energy, which is beyond the GZK cutoff. 

In working out this model, it became clear that the universe might not only recycle its mass-energy partially as noted above, but it might also accomplish a complete recycling that restores the initial low entropy condition and thus makes an eternal recycling possible. In addition, this eternal recycling might explain certain low probability finely tuned conditions that exist in our universe.

In attempting to understand a totally recycling universe, four problems presented themselves as being critical; specifically:

• The origin and primordial characteristics of the super particle.
• The details of the symmetry of the super particle.
• The origin and characteristics of the super particle barrier shell.
• The way these characteristics were formed.

In this paper, these problems will be addressed.

 

The Problems

It has been observed that our universe is very finely tuned. That is, the universe can only exist in its present form by using physical constants in a very narrow range. For example:

• The cosmological constant must be relatively small, or the universe would have expanded too rapidly for galaxies to form.(Smolin, 163). On the other hand, if the cosmological constant were small and the mass in the universe were too large; the universe would collapse too rapidly for galaxies to form. In neither case would life form.
• If charge-parity were not violated, there would be no matter in the universe, only photons from matter and anti-matter annihilations. Again no life would form.
• If the weak force were too small, fusion in stars would not work properly. On the other hand, if it were too large, radioactive decay would be slowed and disrupt element formation and thus the ability of the universe to develop heavy elements properly and thus the galaxies with diverse star types and central black holes that we observe. Again no life would form.

Many other examples of fine-tuning exist, and force us to question how the basic physical constants are chosen after the big bang in such a way as to produce life.

It has been proposed that there are many universes and each has many possible characteristics based on a random combination of its basic physical constants. It is also widely accepted that each universe starts with a big bang, which provides the opportunity for the random choice of a new set of constants. The proposal continues with the surprising idea that the basic physical constants we observe in our universe are a result of the fact that we live here to observe them, not because they are the only ones possible or even the most probable ones. The other universes still exist, but there is no one to observe them. This is called the Anthropic Principle. (Smolin, 161). Smolin notes that there are several problems with the Anthropic principle, and proposes an alternative called “Cosmological Natural Selection”, which may overcome these problems (Smolin, 167). This concept will come up again later in this paper. In any case, this represents a basic problem with our understanding of the universe.

Model 1 has been developed as an answer to many of the problems in cosmology. It is natural to ask if it can solve this problem too. Also, we ask if the answer imposes any new requirements on Model 1. Finally, we ask if the answer imposes conditions on the origin of its primary components–the super particle and the barrier shield. Thus, this paper will attempt to answer the following questions:

1. How are the primordial constants of the universe established?

After this question has been resolved, we can see the impact of formation characteristics on Model 1, and determine the answers to the following connected questions.

2. What are the details of the symmetry of the super particle and where do the resultant components fit into the particle energy spectrum?
3. What are the details of the physical characteristics of the super particle barrier shell?
4. How are the super particle and the barrier shell formed in such a way as to yield their finely tuned characteristics?

In this paper we propose the means that nature uses to select the physical constants and thus the critical features of the universe without resorting to the Anthropic Principle.

 

The Solution

In contrast to the many universes proposal mentioned above, we propose here that there are fundamental cycles that severely limit the combination of basic physical constants that can exist. Thus Model 1 and the cyclical universe propose a universe that operates with three cycles, and that these cycles interact in such a way as to limit the many combinations of physical constants to one very probable one that can produce life. These three cycles are:

• Type 0 recycle–A local rotation of mass-energy from super-particles to particles and back to super particles.
• Type 1 recycle–A comprehensive but temporary rotation of mass energy from its state as particles within a galaxy in particle space to a super particles formed in a black hole, to super particles in vacuum space contained in a barrier shell operating in intergalactic space, and then to super particles moving from vacuum space to particle space in a local big bang, and finally back to particles in a galaxy in particle space.
• Type 2 recycle–A comprehensive and eternal rotation of mass energy from its temporary rotation through particle and vacuum space to a comprehensive rotation from a high entropy state to a renewed low entropy state so it can go back to its temporary rotation. 

The relationship between and operation of the first two cycles is the subject of reference 6, AP4.7N. The relationship between and operation of the last two cycles is the subject of this paper. In this final relationship are the fundamental relationships that limit the number of basic physical constants that can exist; thus explaining the narrow limits to the physical constants we observe in our universe.

Model 1 proposes a universe in which a bubble of matter (mass-energy) cycling through several expanding and contracting states is embedded in a basic space of Planck granules (See Appendix 1). We will start our description of these states with a primal bubble of low-entropy (high temperature) mass-energy in basic space. This bubble curls space according to its mass as described by general relativity (see Peebles, 5). The bubble expands and gains entropy, then contracts and loses entropy and goes through a big bang, and then expands again completing the cycle (see ref 6, AP4.7N). Each succeeding local universe in the series expands by mass escaping from vacuum space into particle space in a temporary rotation, but this escape is not complete. A portion of the mass-energy of the old universe with high entropy is left behind in basic space and so each new universe has slightly more entropy than the previous one. Note also that since the old bubble is not completely disrupted, the mass-energy of the old bubble can seed the charge values of the old universe into the new one. Thus the physical characteristics of the new bubble are almost exactly the same as those of the old one.

Eventually, the entropy of the old contracted bubble is not low enough to start a new large-scale big bang and thus obtain a new bubble, so a large-scale mass oscillation between vacuum space and particle space stops. Specifically, a large portion of the intergalactic super particles of the old universe don’t gain enough high temperature energy to collect to the site of the first principle black hole, so a bang involving the mass-energy of a large portion of the old bubble does not take place. Instead, a sequence of diminishing little bangs happens involving unconnected local black holes (see ref 10, AP4.7J for more details). As the little bangs die off, space still expands, and entropy remains high. This continued expansion finally ends, and space starts to contract again, but for a different reason. The reason is that the balance of the potential energy and kinetic energy terms in the space pressure equation has changed.

To explain the operation of these cycles, we must first explore the pressure and density equations from general relativity, and then connect them with the equations that describe the Higgs field. The expansion and contraction of space is controlled by the following density (ρ_m, ρ_f) and pressure (p) equations from general relativity (see Peebles, 396):

           ρ_f = Ø’ ²/2+ V = density

           p = Ø’ ²/2 – V = pressure

           Where:

           V = a potential energy density

           Ø = a new real scalar field

           Ø’= time rate of change of the field

            Ø’ ²/2 = a field kinetic energy term

Also, the cosmological equation for the time evolution of the expansion parameter a(t) is (see Peebles, 75):

            ä/a = -4/3πG (ρ_m+ 3p)

            Where:

            ä = the acceleration of the cosmological expansion parameter

            ρ_m = mass density

Note from the field pressure equation, that if the potential energy exceeds the field kinetic energy, the field pressure is negative. If the field pressure is large enough, it can dominate the mass pressure. Then if the negative field pressure term is large enough to exceed the density term, the acceleration of the cosmological expansion ä/a turns positive, and space expands. If the potential energy V is small compared to the field kinetic energy term, density controls, the acceleration is negative, and space contracts.

Now, in reference 7, AP4.7G, a connection is made between the above new real scalar field and the Higgs field Ø _h , and they appear to be identical, so:

            Ø _h = Ø 

Finally, the relation between the potential energy density, the rest mass and the Higgs field is in the Lagrangian (Kane, 98):

            Lagrangian = T – V = ½∂_μ Ø ∂ ^μØ – (½μ²Ø ²+ ¼ λØ ⁴)

Thus we see that the potential energy V of space is related to the Higgs field and μ as follows

            V(f) = ½μ²Ø ²+ ¼ λØ ⁴

By expanding around the minimum of V, and using perturbation theory, the equation is found to describe a particle with rest mass m _η (Kane, 100) where:

            m _η² = -2 μ²  

Thus, according to this theory, the mass of a particle is related to the potential energy through the Higgs field. But the mass also appears to be the charge associated with gravitation (Shumm, 10), and it comes from the Higgs field. We must ask, which is the independent variable in the potential energy equation, the mass or the Higgs field. The answer to this question appears to be that the rest mass and the Higgs field vary together, each depending on the other, and the Higgs field generates a mass that is an “effective mass” for the accelerating particle through a screening effect (see Appendix 4). We will call this effective mass the rest mass of the particle. However, this screening effect operates differently in particle space and in vacuum space.

In particle space between and within galaxies, the ambient Higgs field is small and relatively constant (except in black holes), and depends on the average mass density of all the particles in particle space. Thus a particle in this Higgs field will have a constant effective mass. On the other hand, since the particle mass is small, its self-Higgs field is small and so its interaction with its own Higgs field is very small. Thus the potential energy in particle space depends primarily on the separate values of the particle rest mass and the ambient Higgs field.

In vacuum space inside the barrier shell, however, the rest mass of the super particle is large; its self-Higgs field is large; and so the interaction between them is very large. Thus the potential energy in vacuum space depends on the self-interaction of the super particle with its own Higgs field rather than with the small ambient Higgs field of the surrounding particle space.

Now recall that there are two recycle types that can occur as the life of the universe progresses.

• Type 1 recycle– A comprehensive but temporary rotation of mass energy.
• Type 2 recycle– A comprehensive and eternal rotation of mass energy

Also, there are two processes that determine which recycle Type happens.

         1. The super particle heating process in intergalactic particle space.

         2. The process of the increase in the mass density of intergalactic particle space.

Which type of cycle occurs depends on which of the above processes progresses fastest in intergalactic particle space, because a Type 1 or a Type 2 recycle must occur in intergalactic space to involve all of particle space. These processes will now be compared.

1. The Heating of the Super Particles in Intergalactic Particle Space

The shielded super particles inside the event horizon of a black hole are in a broad energy distribution. Those super particles in the high end of this distribution have a high enough kinetic energy to pass through the event horizon, but those in the medium to low end do not. They must gain energy to pass out into the galaxy. Thus the super particles that reach intergalactic particle space have high kinetic energy. These new hot super particles will heat the distribution in intergalactic particle space. If the average kinetic energy of the super particles approaches the Planck energy, they achieve the speed (greater than 3×10¹⁰ cm/sec see ref 3, AP4.7M) necessary to reach the first principal black hole during the contraction phase before a Type 1 big bang. Also, such hot super particles have the energy needed to flow over the potential barrier. So a Type 1 big bang happens. However, if the density of low kinetic energy intergalactic super particles is large, as will happen after several Type 1 big bangs, it will take a long time to raise the temperature of the super particles, and another scenario can occur first.

2. The Increase in the Mass Density of Intergalactic Particle Space

In the middle epoch of the life cycle of the universe, the super particle density is low because most of them have passed over the barrier, and been converted into kinetic and potential energy, and the potential energy has mostly been converted into particles. Gradually, new super particles are formed, and start tunneling into particle space and leaving their potential energy there as dark energy. Thus the potential energy density in particle space goes through a minimum and starts to rise and cause the expansion of space. The super particle and particle density is rising too, but it is below the threshold where it dominates the expansion parameter equation. In the late epoch of the life cycle of the universe, the mass density r_m in intergalactic particle space is increasing rapidly due to the rapid increase in the number of black holes and the increase in super particles coming from each black hole. Also the potential energy V is increasing from disrupting super particles that have tunneled through the barrier shell but at a much slower rate, because tunneling through the barrier shell is a very slow process compared to super particles escaping from black holes. Thus the pressure term in the cosmological expansion equation is decreasing at a much slower rate than the mass density is building, and eventually the acceleration of the cosmic expansion parameter will turn negative. If the temperature increase of the super particles is delayed by buildup of residual low energy super particles from repeated Type 1 big bangs, the mass density buildup will eventually dominate in the expansion parameter equation, and the acceleration of the cosmic expansion parameter will turn negative. Space will contract, and a Type 2 big bang will result.

The ability to recycle from vacuum space to particle space extends the lifetime of the resulting universe significantly (from tens of billions to trillions of years according to Model 1). Non-recycling mass energy that forms from the primordial event lasts for only one cycle or less and then halts, so it will have a truncated cycle time. Thus the available low entropy mass-energy in space from a complete big bang eventually becomes tied up in locally stable; recycling universes. All others will be winnowed out. Note that this winnowing procedure operates very much like biological natural selection. We see here that there is no need for the Anthropic Principle to explain the existence of our seemingly low probability universe, because it is actually a high probability universe, and the longer it lasts, the higher the probability becomes. For this reason, we search in this paper for the characteristics of a locally stable, recycling universe. These are the characteristics that would be expected to describe the high probability bubble universes that exist and have existed including our own.

1). How are the primordial constants that give a locally stable, recycling universe determined?

The primordial conditions (big bang initial conditions) determine the characteristics of the resulting universe through a set of physical constants. The important physical constants appear to be independent, but many are in fact dependent. Thus we may divide the physical constants into three categories, namely:

A). The primary physical constants are those that are fundamental and unchanging. These constants determine the characteristics of the dependent constants.

B). The secondary physical constants are those that can be derived from the primary physical constants, and can be adjusted. They set the type of the forces and particles that make up the universe.

C). The symmetry groups and charges. These items divide the energy into particles.

Here we will designate which constants fall into each category, and then describe how they are determined.

A). The primary physical constants are as follows:

• The Planck energy E_pl is fundamental and unchanging. This constant sets the maximum energy for a particle in the universe. If the maximum is too small, no locally stable, recycling universe can exist.
• The Planck time t_pl is fundamental. This constant sets the minimum increment of time in the universe. The maximum time scale is set by the cycle time of the universe (see ref 2, AP4.7J).
• The Planck length l_pl is fundamental and unchanging. This constant sets the minimum increment of size in the universe. The maximum scale is set by the amount of mass in the universe.
• The amount of low entropy energy (mass-energy) that enters the universe E_o in the big bang is fundamental. This sets the maximum scale of the universe. If the amount is too small, no stable, recycling universe can exist (see Appendix 4).

B). The secondary physical constants are determined by the primary ones, which are:

• The constant c is truly constant, and is determined as:

             c = l_pl / t_pl

Note that c is the same as the velocity of light v only for photons in the mid energy range. For photons in the very high and very low energy ranges, light speed v is altered by the vacuum potential energy, and is higher or lower than c, respectively (see ref 1, AP4.7M).

• The Planck mass m_p is truly constant, and is determined as:

              m_p =  ђ / c² t_pl

• The Planck constant is truly constant, and is determined as:

             ђ  =  E_pl t_pl         

This constant sets the limit of uncertainty in measurement of energy and time in our universe (the energy uncertainty principle). Note that it also sets the limit of uncertainty in measurement of size (l_pl) and momentum (p_pl) ((the momentum uncertainty principle) in our universe as follows:

            ђ =  p_pl l_pl = (2 m_pl E_pl)^½ l_pl

• The gravitational constant G is truly constant, and is determined as:

            G = c⁵ t_pl² / ђ 

This constant defines how much mass is needed to make a black hole, and so how much mass is needed to make a long lived universe, because black holes are needed to make a locally stable, recycling universe (see ref 6, AP4.7N).

• The Lie symmetry groups determine how the energy that enters the universe in the big bang are partitioned into particles under the principle of equipartition of energy.  These groups come into play only if E_pl and E_o are large enough. Note that several different symmetry groups can partition the energy. Thus the one nature uses must be chosen by natural selection to maximize the recycle time (see C) below).
• The charges of the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces must be related in a hierarchy of strength, or stable nuclei and atoms cannot form. The Higgs constants and the total mass of the universe must also be fixed correctly, or the mass-energy of the universe cannot recycle. Thus even though they appear independent, their choice is determined by natural selection to maximize recycle time (see C) below).

C). The primary constants E_pl, t_pl, and l_pl are set by the underlying granular space. Most of the secondary constants are truly constant, but are determined by the primary constants (see B) above). The symmetry groups and charges can vary, and are determined by natural selection (see ref 16, AP4.7Q for details) in a series of big bangs by a process that:

• Provides a particle energy organization principle (a symmetry group) to fit the particles within the maximum energy (E_pl).
• Orders the charges for the symmetry group in a way that ensures that the universe recycles.
• Provides enough total mass energy (E_o) to result in a recycling universe.

Thus setting the total universe mass-energy E_o would completely define the characteristics of the resulting universe. If E_o is too small, no universe will form. If it is large enough, it will concentrate the mass energy into the particles of a universe like ours through a natural selection process in a series of repeated big bangs. Note that this type of universe allows for the existence of life, but that characteristic is not the reason it is the most probable.

2). What are the details of the symmetry of the super particle and where do the resultant components fit into the particle energy spectrum?

Symmetry and energy have been found to be of the greatest importance when searching for the characteristics that provide local stability and the ability to change and recycle. Thus we assume that the stability and recycle ability of super particles can best be described in terms of an energy hierarchy and the associated symmetry groups. Here we explore these properties starting at low energy where our understanding is great and extrapolating to high energy where super particles may exist.

• From cryogenic energy to ~10² GeV, the standard model particles fill the energy spectrum. These particles correspond to the symmetry conditions described in the symmetry groups:

             SU(3) X SU(2) X U(1)

These groups describe the fermions with spin ½ and (n²–1) exchange bosons with spin 1 for each force. Here, n = 1 describes the electromagnetic force, n = 2 describes the weak force, and n = 3 describes the strong force (described in Kane, 8). In addition, the Higgs boson with spin 0 describes mass and thus the gravitational force (Kane, 51 and 98). This energy span has been well explored, and can be used as a jumping off point for the super particle that operates at higher energy.

• From  ~10² GeV to ~10¹⁷ GeV is the realm where the forces appear to approach unification. In this zone the coupling strengths approach the same value at the unification energy ~10¹⁷ GeV (Kane, 281). Note that some estimate this unification energy to be ~10¹⁶ GeV (ref 3), but this discrepancy is within the accuracy of the estimate. This possible gauge coupling unification is described by many possible symmetry groups and attendant theories, but SO(10) appears to be the favorite at present (see Appendix 2). Model 1 does not require unification with SO(10). The only things required of the symmetry group are that the super particle couplings are strong enough to form a finite lifetime super particle, and that it contain the above three standard model groups. Clearly, SO(10) fits these criteria (see Appendix 2). 
• From ~10¹⁷ GeV to ~ 10¹⁹ GeV is the realm of the super particles of Model 1. As an example, the symmetry group SO(10) shows a Grand Unification of the three forces and more bosons to mediate it. Even if the resulting super particle has a unified force, it is expected to have a finite lifetime, so a recycling barrier shell is necessary to provide a recycling environment to increase the lifetime (see ref 8, AP4.7C).
• A little above ~ 10¹⁹ GeV is the Planck energy, which is the maximum possible. The energy space above the Planck energy is forbidden.

Note that this super particle can form only when there is enough mass energy to form the unified particle. This energy limit appears to be ~10¹⁷ GeV—the super particle formation energy. It is natural to question where the extreme energy that is needed to form a super particle comes from. It appears that only one object in the universe can provide the necessary energy for super particle formation (see ref 6, AP4.7N). This energy is possible because gravitation forces a huge mass to collect in one place to form an enormous spatial curvature. Thus it can provide an enormous potential energy from the curvature, and a huge kinetic energy as massive particles follow the spatial curvature toward the black hole center. This super particle energy can build up clear to the Planck limit and provide for the recycling of a universe through a big bang (see ref 6, AP4.7N).         

3). What is the origin of the physical characteristics of the super particle barrier shell?

Since a super particle is expected to have a finite lifetime, one necessary component of a recycling universe must be a barrier shell to contain the super particle and provide the environment necessary to recycle its breakdown components into new super particles, and thus obtain a long-term stability. The physical characteristics of the barrier shell for the super particle will be developed here.

• According to Model 1, the super particle with its large rest mass moves rapidly within the barrier shell and is contained by it and so forms a high and relatively uniform time-averaged rest mass density (m _η/v) inside the barrier. The average rest mass density falls off precipitously at the inner boundary of the thin barrier shell. The Higgs field changes with the rest mass density.
• As shown above, in the vacuum space bubble, the rest mass and the Higgs field depend on the self-interaction of the super particle rest mass and its field. Now Kane shows that if the potential energy V is plotted against the Higgs field f, a Mexican Hat shaped function is formed (Kane, 99). So as f is reduced, V reduces and then passes through a negative minimum, and rises to a peak and levels off at zero. The screening argument given above shows that the Higgs field follows the rest mass density. Thus inside the barrier shell, where m _η/v is high and constant, f is high and constant. This f then forms the high, constant vacuum potential energy V of vacuum space (~10⁴⁹ GeV/cc—see Kane, 112) where the super particle operates. The potential energy needed to make a super particle is 10¹⁷ GeV (the potential energy at the merging coupling strengths of the forces-see Kane, 281). Thus the size of the vacuum space bubble that contains the super particle is ~10^-11 cm radius if the potential energy is spread uniformly in the bubble.
• At the inner boundary of the barrier shell, m _η/v and f fall off rapidly from the high values of vacuum space into the low values of particle space. Thus, following the central peak of the Mexican hat potential, the potential energy of vacuum space rises from the high plateau in the bubble (~10⁴⁹ cGeV/cc) to a very high peak (V_m) in the barrier shell and levels off, thus forming the inner part of the barrier shell.  Outside of the barrier shell in intergalactic space, the particle space vacuum potential is low and constant (~10^-4 GeV/cc—see Kane, 112). At the outer boundary of the barrier shell, m _η/v and f rise rapidly, so V rises from ~10^-4 GeV/cc to the value at the high peak (V_m ). The shell volume is

            v = 4π r² t

            Where:

            r= radius of the vacuum space bubble = ~10^-11 cm

            t= thickness of the barrier

The thickness of the shell is bounded at the Planck length (~10^-33 cm), so it must be greater than this length. The need to contain the super particle within vacuum space to extend its lifetime will push the thickness t to the lowest possible value-say ~10^-31 to 10^-32 cm to maximize the barrier potential energy strength. It is considered significant that the barrier thickness that gives the current value of particle space potential energy density is ~10^-31 cm (see ref 7, AP4.7G). Thus the thickness ~10^-31 cm appears to be the correct value for t. This makes the shell potential energy density peak V_m ~10⁷² GeV/cc since the maximum energy is the Planck energy ~10¹⁹ GeV. Note that this is a stable configuration where the bubble size and energy is bounded below by the characteristics of the Higgs field, and the shell size and energy is bounded above by the limits of the Planck length and the Planck energy.

The above characteristics are the ones that establish the barrier shell and stabilize the super particle.

4). How is such an unusual barrier shell formed?

We have established the characteristics of the super particle and its barrier shell, and shown how the shell stabilizes the super particle. Now we can describe how it is formed in a black hole.

As a particle moves toward the black hole center, it gains kinetic energy and potential energy (Misner, 911) until it enters the diffusion zone. When the potential energy reaches ~10¹⁷ GeV, there is enough to form super particles, and so an equilibrium creation-destruction cycle for super particles starts (see ref 8, AP4.7C for details). The high-energy vacuum bubbles with a vacuum potential energy density of ~10⁴⁹ cGeV/cc begin to form, but they cannot maintain themselves because there is no means to define the boundary. The particles and bubbles exist in a Gaussian distribution of kinetic and potential energy. Thus a small fraction of the bubbles will see a potential energy near the Planck energy. Then the high potential energy bubbles will form a shell of higher potential energy, which seals the boundary, forming a stable vacuum space bubble. At the same time, the particles with kinetic energy near the Planck energy have enough energy (activation energy) to penetrate the shell, and form a creation-destruction cycle within the bubble. Thus a stable super particle is born ready to move out of the black hole diffusion zone.  

 

Experimental Proof of Mass Rotation

There is reason to take Model 1 seriously. It quantitatively explains:

• The origin, characteristics and operation of dark matter.
• The origin, characteristics and operation of dark energy.
• The origin, characteristics and operation of the Ultra High Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECR) that have been observed in the energy range beyond the GZK cutoff.
• The huge disparity in the different estimates of the vacuum potential energy.
• The large-scale cutoff and asymmetry in the Microwave Background Energy.
• The origin, characteristics and values of light speed.
• The fundamental limitations that curtail the combination of basic physical constants that can exist, and thus the narrow limits to the physical constants observed in our universe.

Note that these characteristics describe a universe (ours) in the midst of a comprehensive but temporary set of rotations of mass energy through a principal black hole. They do not describe the initial or final stage of the eternal cycle.

 

Summary and Conclusions

In this paper, we have shown how the universe rotates through its states in a set of two interrelated cycles, namely:

• A comprehensive but temporary rotation of mass energy from its state as particles within a galaxy in particle space to a super particles formed in a black hole, to super particles in vacuum space contained in a barrier shell operating in intergalactic space, and then to super particles moving from vacuum space to particle space in a local big bang, and finally back to particles in a galaxy in particle space.
• A comprehensive and eternal rotation of mass energy from its temporary rotation through particle and vacuum space to a comprehensive rotation from a high entropy state to a renewed low entropy state so it can go back to its temporary rotation. 

Further, we have shown that the physical characteristics of the universe are not randomly chosen. A process involving natural selection severely limits the values of the physical constants, and thus limits the characteristics of the universe determines them. This process requires recycling to maximize the lifetime of each universe, and thus maximize the probability that a universe (including our own) will exist. For this reason, we search here for the characteristics of a locally stable, recycling universe.

The processes that guarantees local stability and recycling includes:

• Setting E_pl, l_pl, andt_pl primary constants and total universe mass-energy E_o, which completely defines the characteristics of the resulting universe. The secondary constants c, m_p, ђ, and G are determined by the primary constants. We note that the constants E_pl, l_pl, andt_pl are defined by the basic space, which is common to both particle and vacuum spaces.

• Setting the proper symmetry groups and charges of the super particles to ensure local stability and recycling. The group SO(10) appears most likely, but any group that includes the Standard Model groups and results in a super particle formation energy of ~10¹⁷ GeV is acceptable.
• Providing for the automatic formation of the barrier shell for the super particle in a black hole to ensure long term recycling.

The physical requirements that guarantee these processes are detailed in this paper except for those involving the symmetry groups and charges, which are described in reference 16, AP4.7Q).

Appendix 1

In 1955, John Wheeler proposed that a concept called Quantum Foam be used to describe the foundation of the fabric of the universe (ref 1, AP4.7M Appendix 3). At scales of the order of a Planck length, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle allows energy to decay into virtual particles and anti particles and then annihilate back into energy without violating physical conservation laws. At the Planck scale, the energy density involved is extremely high, and so according to General Relativity, it would curve space-time tightly and cause a significant departure from the smooth space-time observed at larger scales. Note that the potential energy of the tightly curled grain would be stored in the curvature of space. Thus at these tiny scales, space-time would have a “foamy” or “grainy” character. The resulting grains would pop in and out of existence with Planck energy and Planck size for a Planck time. According to this proposal, the Planck granules would have size, time and energy characteristics as follows (Peebles, 368):

            l_pl= 1.62 x 10^-33 cm

            t_pl= 5.38 x 10^-44 sec

            E_pl = 1.22 x 10¹⁹ GeV

Thus in Model 1, these are the limiting characteristics of both particle and vacuum space. The large scale structures (galaxies, for example) of the universe are embedded in this granulated space, and are formed with large-scale bubbles of mass-energy that expand from a big bang.

Appendix 2

A grand unification theory requires the unification of the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces. The fact that gauge coupling strengths seem to meet and that the neutrinos oscillate suggest that the standard model is incomplete. For this reason, many Grand Unification Theories (GUTs) and related Lie symmetry groups that describe them have been generated (ref 3). The smallest simple Lie group that contains the standard model at lower energy is SU(5), but it predicts a proton decay which has been searched for but not found. Consequently, it has fallen out of favor. Group SO(10) (see ref 3) predicts a longer proton decay time, so it appears to be the current favorite. It does not contain any fermions except standard model fermions plus the right-handed neutrino. SO(10) does contain new bosons. These bosons can generate a new exchange force that extends the lifetime of the super particle of Model 1. It contains the electroweak Higgs field and a GUT Higgs field. Note that a super particle formed with these new bosons is still expected to have a finite lifetime, so there must be a mechanism to reform them if they are to be the source of long-lived dark matter. This mechanism can be accomplished with the barrier shell described above and the regeneration mechanism described in ref 8, AP4.7C.

It is important to ask where the energy goes as it is packed into the super particle. According to the standard model of particle physics, all but a few percent of the mass of protons and neutrons is due to the internal mass-energy associated with the mutual orbital motion of the gluons and quarks or the continual exchange of force field quanta between the orbiting gluons and quarks. More mass is derived from the screening effects of the Higgs field on the particles, which gives an appearance of massiveness as described in Appendix 4 below (also see Schumm, 306). For shielded super particles, there is an additional mass associated with the upward curvature of the potential at the barrier shell (see Kane, 102). There are expected to be new bosons in the higher level symmetry group super particle (as in the SO(10) group). There will be mass-energy associated with some of those new bosons, their motion and exchange. Some of those new bosons may be new Higgs bosons with their attendant mass. Thus energy that is packed in to form a shielded super particle can go into each of four areas.

• The increased kinetic energy of a smaller and tighter structure of mutually orbiting gluons and quarks in super proton that forms into the super particle.
• An increased mass caused by the screening effect on the particles due to an increased Higgs field.
• The mass associated with the upward curvature of the potential at the barrier shell. Note that the super particle moves independently within its barrier shell, but when it impacts the shell it pushes the shell. Because the shell has mass, it is reluctant to move, so the super particle rattles around in its shell, and moves the shell along its average direction.
• A possible new set of bosons (including some Higgs bosons) from the symmetry group (see SO(10), ref 3, for example). These new bosons would form orbits around and within the super particle fermions to strengthen its bonds.

Recall that the symmetry group SO(10) is not necessarily required to generate a super particle, only one that contains U(1)XSO(2)XSO(3) group. Another symmetry group may be the correct one. The amount of energy put into the super particles by the black hole is expected to be too great to be contained by the SU(2) and SU(3) forces, and the high energy super particles that form near a black hole would break down into ultra high kinetic energy particles (normally protons) as soon as they pass through the barrier shell. These particles would be observed as cosmic rays (UHECR’s).

Appendix 3

Here we will explore the significance of the amount of mass that enters the universe. Two factors, the mass, and the potential energy density modify the initial expansion of the universe. The mass that enters the universe determines whether the universe is fundamentally spherical (closed), parabolic (balanced) or hyperbolic (open). A closed system has the largest mass, and is the shortest lived, so it will be selected out because of its short life. A parabolic system has a smaller mass, and closes asymptotically to a fixed expansion. A hyperbolic system has the smallest mass, and has an infinite life, but thins out rapidly with an ever-increasing rate. Thus its mass is gradually distributed to other basic space zones.

Note that this fundamental mass-driven system is modified by the potential energy in the system. If the field potential energy of the system exceeds the field kinetic energy of the system, space itself will expand. This effect can exceed the effect of the mass in the system, and cause even large mass systems to expand. For example, in our universe, the mass is believed to be nearly balanced, although it may be closed. The potential energy in space is large enough, however, to make space expand. 

Appendix 4

There appears to be a screening effect with the Higgs field (see Shumm, 293-299) that explains mass formation. To explain this effect, we start by recalling the screening effect of electrons on photons. If a photon passes through a medium filled with free electrons, its oscillating electric field oscillates the electron charges, and they generate opposing photons that tend to cancel the original photon. This tendency is called screening, and it gives a finite range to the photon in conducting media. We can model this effect by saying that the screening electric field generates an “effective mass” for the photon even though the photon has zero mass and infinite range (see Kane, 29).

In a similar manner, we can model the mass of a particle with a Higgs field that “drags” on the particle as it accelerates. If an accelerating particle passes through a medium filled with particles with a mass charge, the mass charge of the accelerating particle sees the Higgs field generated by the other particles in the medium, and the field  “drags” on the particle in such a way as to reduce its acceleration, giving its accelerated motion a finite range. In addition, the mass charge of the accelerating particle sees the Higgs field generated by its own mass and interacts, and this interaction also reduces the acceleration. We can model both of these effects by saying that the screening Higgs fields generate an “effective mass” for the accelerating particle even if the particle has zero intrinsic mass (see Kane, 29). We will call this effective mass the rest mass of the particle.

 

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