Abstract

There are currently eight connected major unanswered questions in astrophysics. The most important of these are:

How can dark matter be explained and described?
How can dark energy be explained and described?
Where do the extremely high-energy cosmic rays that occur in the energy range beyond the GZK cutoff come from?

A self-consistent theory that consists of many parts has been developed that answers these questions quantitatively. These parts have been collected into a self-consistent set, which will be referred to as Model W1 or in these Aquater Papers simply as Model 1. The unique features of this model are:

There are two spaces in the universe, particle space and quantum vacuum space. A potential barrier separates them. One space contains visible matter, and the other space contains dark matter.

There is a cycling of mass-energy between these spaces through the black holes that connect them. Particles pass from our space through black holes where they are converted into super particles that operate with unified force. They then pass into the high-energy vacuum space where they become dark matter operating behind the potential barrier.

Dark matter particles interact with each other and form a slowly building and moving bubble centered on a galaxy. Corridors of dark matter forming a cosmic web, which guide the development of new galaxies connect the bubbles of dark matter to each other.

There, behind a potential barrier, the dark matter particles gain energy, build up in number and eventually exceed the ability of the barrier to contain them. They then explode back into particle space as a big bang. This process repeats to make a long series of new universes.

After the big bang exhausts itself, super particles continue to tunnel through the barrier into particle space. The super particles are unstable and break down into particles with extreme kinetic energy. In doing so, they give up potential energy into particle space. The potential energy gradually builds up to become the dark energy that we observe as the cause of our accelerating, expanding universe. The extreme energy protons are observed as cosmic rays with energy between the energy of force unification and the Planck energy, which is beyond the GZK cutoff.

In working out Model 1, three mass-energy rotation cycles were discovered, namely:

Type 0 Recycle–A local rotation of mass-energy from super-particles to particles and back to super particles.

Type 1 Recycle–A comprehensive but temporary rotation of mass energy from its state as particles within a galaxy in particle space to a super particles formed in a black hole, to super particles in vacuum space contained in a barrier shell operating in intergalactic space, and then to super particles moving from vacuum space to particle space in a local big bang, and finally back to particles in a galaxy in particle space.

Type 2 Recycle–A comprehensive and eternal rotation of mass energy from its temporary rotation through particle and vacuum space to a comprehensive rotation from a high entropy state to a renewed low entropy state so it can go back to its temporary rotation cycle.

The details of the generation of these cycles were partially described in ref 1, AP4.7P, but the details of the generation of the charges for them were not. Those details will be described here.

The Problem

In reference 1, AP4.7P, we noted the importance of two types of comprehensive mass energy recycling in selecting the characteristics of the universe, namely:

Type 1 recycle–A comprehensive but temporary rotation of mass energy from its state as particles within a galaxy in particle space to super particles formed in a black hole, to super particles in vacuum space contained in a barrier shell operating in intergalactic space, and then to super particles in a barrier shell moving from vacuum space to particle space in a local big bang, and finally back to particles in a galaxy in particle space.
Type 2 recycle–A comprehensive and eternal rotation of mass energy from its temporary rotation through particle and vacuum space to a comprehensive rotation through a high entropy state to a renewed low entropy state so it can go back to its temporary rotation.

We noted also that the temporary rotation operated at a particle energy less than the Planck energy, and so conserved the charges that defined the prior universe as well as some of its super particles and particles. We noted finally that the eternal rotation operated at the Planck energy and the higher energy destroyed all charges as well as the super particles and particles. The new universe started from scratch.

We noted also that two processes determine which recycle type will happen (see Appendix 1), namely:

The super particle heating process in intergalactic particle space.
The process of the increase in the mass density of intergalactic particle space.

We noted finally that when a new eternal universe starts, it must define certain basic constants of two types (see ref 1, AP4.7P):

The primary fundamental constants, which are the Planck energy E_pl, the Planck time t_pl, the Planck length l_pl, and the total mass-energy of the universe E_o
The secondary derivative constants, which are the constant c, the Planck mass m_p, the Planck constant ђ, the gravitational constant G, and the symmetry groups and charges for the electromagnetic, weak and strong forces.

Now the primary constants E_pl,t_pl,l_pl and E_o are set by the underlying granular space. They also determine the secondary derivative constants m_p,ђ, c and G. The symmetry groups and charges are determined by natural selection in a series of big bangs by a process that:

Provides a particle energy organization principle (a symmetry group) to fit the particles within the maximum energy (E_pl).
Orders the charges for each symmetry group in a way that ensures that the universe can recycle and extend its life.

Apparently providing enough mass-energy E_o will completely define the characteristics of the resulting universe through a natural selection process to be very similar to ours. If E_o is too small, no lasting universe will form. If it is large enough, recycling will concentrate the mass energy into the particles with symmetries and charges like ours.

Thus the setting of the constants is reasonably well defined except for the charges (ref 1, AP4.7P). It is not clear how the charges are set and operate. This charge problem will be addressed in this paper.

The Solution

A symmetry group is observed in the physical laws governing the particles before and after a big bang regardless of the type of big bang. Noethers theorem determines the charges. How charges are maintained will be described for each of two cases separately.

Type 1 recycle). For the temporary rotation case, where super particles spill over the potential barrier, the big bang operates at a super particle energy slightly below the Planck energy. Charge is conserved for each particle as long as the energy of the particle remains below the Planck energy.

Some particles and super particles remain in a “shadow web” in particle space because they were in the low energy tail of the distribution and so did not have enough energy to collect to a principal black hole and pass over the potential barrier. Thus they maintain their physical laws throughout the process, and so their charges are conserved (Noether).
Some particles pass over the barrier, but don’t reach the Planck energy, and are disrupted by collisions after passing over the potential barrier. These particles are converted into energy for a time determined by the uncertainty principle. They are then reformed into particles and super particles using the same physical laws (force laws) that operated in the prior universe. Because the physical laws controlling the particles before and after the big bang are the same, there must be some physical quantities that are conserved (Noether). These conserved quantities are the charges.
Most particles escape the barrier shell before gaining the Planck energy, but some particles near the top of the distribution will have high enough energy to reach it. When new particles form, the laws governing them will be different (see Appendix 2). The charges for these particles will then be scrambled, not conserved (Noether). The new charges that form should be different, but not be dramatically different. If they were too different, they would not fit with the existing universe, and would be scrambled again until particles formed that fit. This process allows the universe to make modest changes in charge values at each big bang, and thus shift the charges toward values that maximize the number of recycles.

Thus when the potential energy is available, a new particle can form around the appropriate charges again, and the universe formed generally maintains its characteristics, with only a small potential for change.

Type 2 recycle). For the case where the universe completely collapses, the energy of all the particles rises to the Planck energy, the laws change and the charges are all scrambled. Then when potential energy is available, a new charge must be chosen at random to form the new particle. Here, a shifting of values occurs that closes on a value that insures recycling as follows.

All particles are disrupted at the Planck boundary into energy, and no particles with their physical laws pass through the big bang.
Because no particle physical laws are the same before and after the big bang, no charges are conserved (Noether). When potential energy condenses into particles obeying a symmetry group, the charges are chosen at random.
If the charges chosen can’t support a long-lived cycle, the resulting universe will not last long, and the mass energy will recycle rapidly and reappear in a new space as energy. This short term recycling will continue until a combination occurs that will give at least one complete recycle. Then Type 1 recycling can gradually shift the charges to maximize the number of cycles achieve. This recycling maximizes the time that that universe will exist, and thus maximizes the probability that the universe will be like ours.

There are two processes that determine which recycle Type happens.

The super particle heating process in intergalactic particle space. Here the super particles in intergalactic space heat until they can pass over the potential barrier. At the same time, they achieve extreme operation speeds, and can reach principal black holes rapidly.
The increase in the mass density of intergalactic particle space. Here the mass density in intergalactic particle space builds by leakage from black holes.

Which type of cycle occurs depends on which of the above processes progresses fastest. If the heating process progresses fastest, a Type 1 recycle will occur. If the heating process is delayed by a buildup of high entropy (low temperature) particles from many recycles, mass density buildup controls and a Type 2 recycle will occur. This progression is described in more detail in Appendix 1.

The two types of recycling combine to cause the conditions needed to choose charges that optimize the recycling time for the universe through natural selection. The longer the time the universe spends in one recycling state, the larger the probability that the universe will be in that state. The resulting state is the same as ours with particles and super particles, long-lived galaxies, stars fueled by fusion, black holes, and Type 1 and Type 2 recycling. It also optimizes the probability of intelligent life occurring, but that characteristic is not the reason it is the most probable state.

Summary and Conclusions

We have seen that the setting of the constants is reasonably well defined except for the charges (ref 1, AP4.7P). It is not clear how the charges are set and operate. The setting of the charges is accomplished as follows.

There are two processes that determine which recycle Type happens.

The super particle heating process in intergalactic particle space.
The process of the increase in the mass density of intergalactic particle space.

Now there are two recycle types that can occur as the life of the universe progresses.

Type 1 recycle– A comprehensive but temporary rotation of mass energy.
Type 2 recycle– A comprehensive and eternal rotation of mass energy

Which type of cycle occurs depends on which of the above processes progresses fastest in intergalactic particle space, because a Type 1 or a Type 2 recycle must occur in intergalactic space to involve all of particle space. If the heating process progresses fastest, a Type 1 recycle will occur. If the heating process is delayed by a buildup of high entropy (low temperature) particles from many recycles, mass density buildup controls and a Type 2 recycle will occur.

The two types of recycling combine to cause the conditions needed to choose charges that lengthen the recycling time for the universe through natural selection. The longer the time the universe spends in one recycling state, the larger the probability that the universe will be in that state. The resulting state is the same as ours with particles and super particles, long-lived galaxies, stars fueled by fusion, black holes, and Type 1 and Type 2 recycling. It also optimizes the probability of intelligent life occurring, but that characteristic is not the reason it is the most probable state.

Appendix 1

There are two processes that determine which recycle Type happens.

The super particle heating process in intergalactic particle space.
The process of the increase in the mass density of intergalactic particle space.

Now as described in the main text, there are two recycle types that can occur as the life of the universe progresses.

Type 1 recycle– A comprehensive but temporary rotation of mass energy.
Type 2 recycle– A comprehensive and eternal rotation of mass energy

In order to explain how the processes determine which recycle type occurs, we must start with the equations that control the expansion and contraction of the universe, which are controlled by the following density (ρ_f , ρ_m) and pressure (p_f) equations from general relativity (see Peebles, 396):

r_f = Φ’ ²/2+ V = density

p_f = Φ’ ²/2 – V = pressure

Where:

V = a potential energy density

Φ = a new real scalar field

Φ’= time rate of change of the field

Φ’ ²/2 = a field kinetic energy

Also, the cosmological equation for the time evolution of the expansion parameter a(t) is (see Peebles, 75):

ä/a = -4/3πG (ρ_m+ 3p)

Where:

ρ_m= mass density in particle space.

ä = the acceleration of the cosmological expansion parameter

Finally, the relation between the potential energy density, the rest mass and the Higgs field is in the Lagrangian (Kane, 98):

Lagrangian = T – V = ½∂_μΦ ∂ ^μΦ– (½μ²Φ²+ ¼ λΦ⁴)

Thus we see that the potential energy V of space is related to the Higgs field and μ as follows

V(f) = ½μ²Φ²+ ¼ λΦ ⁴

By expanding around the minimum of V, and using perturbation theory, the equation is found to describe a particle with rest mass m _η (Kane, 100) where:

m _η² = -2 μ²

So potential energy can convert to mass through the operation of the Higgs field (see ref 1 AP4.7P for more details).

Note from the field pressure equation, that if the potential energy exceeds the field kinetic energy, the field pressure is negative. If the field pressure is large enough, it can dominate the mass pressure. Then if the negative field pressure term is large enough to exceed the density term, the acceleration of the cosmological expansion ä/a turns positive, and space expands. If the potential energy V is small compared to the field kinetic energy term, density controls, the acceleration is negative, and space contracts.

1). The Heating of the Super Particles in Intergalactic Particle Space

The shielded super particles inside the event horizon of a black hole are in a broad energy distribution. Those super particles in the high end of this distribution have a high enough kinetic energy to pass through the event horizon, but those in the medium to low end do not. They must gain energy to pass out into the galaxy. Thus the super particles that reach intergalactic particle space have high kinetic energy. These new hot super particles will heat the distribution in intergalactic particle space. If the average kinetic energy of the super particles approaches the Planck energy, they achieve the speed (greater than 3×10¹⁰ cm/sec see ref 3, AP4.7M) necessary to reach the first principal black hole during the contraction phase before a Type 1 big bang. Also, such hot super particles have the energy needed to flow over the potential barrier. So a Type 1 big bang happens for nearly the whole universe. However, if the density of low average kinetic energy intergalactic super particles is large, as will happen after several Type 1 big bangs, it will take a long time to raise the temperature of the super particles, and another scenario can occur first.

2). The Increase in the Mass Density of Intergalactic Particle Space

In the middle epoch of the life cycle of the universe, the super particle density is low because most of them have passed over the barrier, and the potential energy has mostly been converted into particles, and the kinetic energy has been given to these particles. Gradually, new shielded super particles are formed by new black holes, and start tunneling into particle space and leaving their potential energy there as dark energy. Thus the potential energy density in particle space goes through a minimum and starts to rise and cause the expansion of space. The shielded super particle and particle density is rising too, but it is below the threshold where it dominates the expansion parameter equation. In the late epoch of the life cycle of the universe, the mass density r_m in intergalactic particle space is increasing rapidly due to the rapid increase in the number of black holes and the increase in super particles coming from each black hole. Also the potential energy V is increasing from disrupting super particles that have tunneled through the barrier shell but at a much slower rate, because tunneling through the barrier shell is a very slow process compared to super particles escaping from black holes. Thus the pressure term in the cosmological expansion equation is decreasing at a much slower rate than the mass density is building, and eventually the acceleration of the cosmic expansion parameter will turn negative. If the temperature increase of the super particles is delayed by buildup of residual low energy super particles from repeated Type 1 big bangs, the mass density buildup will eventually dominate in the expansion parameter equation, and the acceleration of the cosmic expansion parameter will turn negative. Space will contract, and a Type 2 big bang will result.

Appendix 2

This change in laws and charges appears to be hinted at in results described by Smolin in Loop Quantum Gravity (Smolin, 250). For example, Loop Quantum Gravity predicts that particles can sink into black holes, bounce at the Plank energy and expand into a new space. This might be interpreted as also describing shielded super particles (in vacuum space) caught in a collapsing particle space and heating until they reach the Planck energy. There they bounce and disrupt and lose their shield and scramble their charges. They are then truly in a new space. Then they must reassemble and choose new charges.

References

L. H. Wald, “AP4.7P RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL CONSTANTS” www.Aquater2050.com/2016/05/
G. Kane, Modern Elementary Particle Physics, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Perseus Publishing, 1993.
L. H. Wald, “AP4.7M VARIABLE LIGHT SPEED IN MODEL 1” www.Aquater2050.com/2015/12/
L. Smolin, The Trouble with Physics, Boston, New York: Mariner Books, 2006.