Abstract

There are currently eight connected major unanswered questions in astrophysics. The most important of these are:

• How can dark matter be explained and described?
• How can dark energy be explained and described?
• Where do the extremely high-energy cosmic rays that occur in the energy range beyond the GZK cutoff come from?

A self-consistent theory that consists of many parts has been developed that answers these questions quantitatively. These parts have been collected into a self-consistent set, which will be referred to as Model W1 or in these Aquater Papers simply as Model 1. The unique features of this model are:

• There are two spaces in the universe, particle space and quantum vacuum space. A potential barrier separates them. One space contains visible matter, and the other space contains dark matter.

• There is a cycling of mass-energy between these spaces through the black holes that connect them. Particles pass from our space through black holes where they are converted into super particles that operate with unified force. They then pass into the high-energy vacuum space where they become dark matter operating behind the potential barrier.

• Dark matter particles interact with each other and form a slowly building and moving bubble centered on a galaxy. Corridors of dark matter forming a cosmic web, which guide the development of new galaxies connect the bubbles of dark matter to each other.

• There, behind a potential barrier, the dark matter particles gain energy, build up in number and eventually exceed the ability of the barrier to contain them. They then explode back into particle space as a big bang. This process repeats to make a long series of new universes.

• After the big bang exhausts itself, super particles continue to tunnel through the barrier into particle space. The super particles are unstable and break down into particles with extreme kinetic energy. In doing so, they give up potential energy into particle space. The potential energy gradually builds up to become the dark energy that we observe as the cause of our accelerating, expanding universe. The extreme energy protons are observed as cosmic rays with energy between the energy of force unification and the Planck energy, which is beyond the GZK cutoff. 

In working out Model 1, it was noticed that there might be an application to the problem of the instantaneous transfer of state for coherent states. This application will be analyzed in this paper.

 

The Problem

There is a set of experiments that show that an instantaneous transfer of state over distances too large to allow for transfer of information at 2.99 x 10¹⁰ cm/sec. In order for this transfer to happen, the particles involved must be entangled (see reference 3). The standard accepted theory for transfer of state information requires the exchange of photons, which must happen at the speed of light, so this exchange should be impossible. Einstein referred to it as “spooky action at a distance”.

In this paper, we will show that according to Model 1, such a transfer of state at superluminal speed is quite possible as long as the two particles involved remain entangled during the transfer.

 

The Solution

In reference 1, AP4.7M, it was shown that the speed of light (v_o) is controlled by the change of energy of the photon as it passes through each Planck granule. Thus v_o can vary with the energy of the photon involved according to the equation:

            v_o = nl_p/ Nt_p ½[(1 – E_ke/(V₀-E_ke)]

                  = 2.99 x 10¹⁰ / ½[(1 + E_ke/(E_ke-V₀] cm/sec  

            Where:

            V₀ = potential energy for the space of interest

            l_p = Planck length

            t_p = Planck time

            E_ke = photon kinetic energy

            l_p/ t_p = c = 2.99 x 10¹⁰ cm/sec

            n = number of vacuum granules along the travel length

            N = number of disruptions along a travel length caused by a potential energy edge

Normally, the photon detects the potential energy edge of each Planck vacuum granule, and its travel is disrupted, so n = N. Only if the particle or photon has an extremely high or extremely low energy, can light speed (v_o) exceed (high energy) or be less than (low energy) a value of 2.99 x 10¹⁰ cm/sec. Thus, in the energy range of particle space (moderate temperatures), E_ke is greater than V_0, which is very low_. In fact, V₀<E_ke<10¹⁷ GeV, since for E_ke  >10¹⁷ GeV, the photon enters vacuum space where the speed of light changes. For these moderate temperature conditions, light speed is constant, and equal to c at 2.99 x 10¹⁰ cm/sec. If the energy is extremely low (cryogenic temperatures), E_ke nears V_0, and V₀ can be very small, so light speed is low. If the energy is extremely high (near Planck energy), the photon cannot detect the potential energy edge of the granule, and light speed is large. Thus light speed v_o is constant except in extreme energy regimes as relativity requires, and l_p = constant, as quantum mechanics requires.

Now, when two particles have separated a large distance, and still have maintained entanglement, a special condition occurs. We recall that two-particle entanglement means that the physical state of the two particles is precisely the same, even the phase and the spin, so the physical laws governing them are precisely the same. They also remain in contact through exchange photons, so the exchange photons must also have precisely the same phase and spin, and they too are entangled along their path of travel. Since the exchange photons maintain entanglement throughout their travel, they force the Planck vacuum granules to become entangled throughout the travel length, and the vacuum granules act in unison. This granule entanglement means that an exchange photon cannot detect a discontinuity at the boundary of each grain. Thus a photon does not notice any potential energy edge until it meets a large disruption in space such as that at an edge of a solar system, a galaxy, a boundary of a corridor in the cosmic web or at an edge of the observable universe, so n >>N. Now the length of travel for an exchange photon is n Planck lengths long, and so the distance traveled is nl_p. Also, the time used for this travel is just Nt_p so:

            v_o = nl_p/ Nt_p ½[(1 + (E_ke)/(E_ke– V_bo)]

                  = 2.99 x 10¹⁰n / N ½[(1 + (E_ke)/(E_ke– V_bo)]

Now, since

            E_ke >> V_bo

Then:

            ½[(1 + (E_ke)/(E_ke– V_bo)] ~ 1

Also:

            n/N >> 1

So:

            v_o  >> 2.99 x 10¹⁰ cm/sec for the photon passage as long as the entanglement is maintained.

We see that entanglement acts like it can smoothe space and allow exchange photons to travel faster than the normal speed of light.

Thus we see that an instantaneous transfer of state over distances too large to allow for transfer of information at the normal speed of light can take place. 

 

Summary and Conclusions

There is a set of experiments that show that an instantaneous transfer of state over distances too large to allow for transfer of information at normal speed of light can take place. In order for this transfer to happen, the particles involved must be entangled. In this paper, we have found that Model 1 expects that a superluminal transfer of state can take place as long as the particles remain entangled. Such a transfer is made possible because entanglement smoothes the graininess of space and allows for photon travel faster than the normal speed of light. Thus the speed of the exchange particles that regulate state is increased between the entangled particles.

 

References

1. L. H. Wald, “AP4.7M VARIABLE LIGHT SPEED IN MODEL 1” www.Aquater2050.com/2015/12/
2. B. A. Schumm, Deep Down things, Baltimore, MD and London, England, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement