Abstract

In a previous paper (ref 3, AP4.7), a self-consistent, cyclical theory for the universe called Model 1 was developed, that is complete, self-constructing and regenerating. The unique features of this model are:

• There are two spaces in the universe, particle space and quantum vacuum space. A potential barrier separates them. One space contains visible matter, and the other space contains dark matter.

• There is a cycling of mass-energy between these spaces through the black holes that connect them. Particles pass from our space through black holes where they are converted into super particles that operate with unified force. They then pass into the high-energy vacuum space where they become dark matter operating behind the potential barrier.

• Dark matter particles interact with each other and form a slowly moving halo centered on a galaxy. The halos of dark matter are connected to each other by corridors of dark matter, which form a cosmic web. This web facilitates and guides the development of new galaxies.

• There, behind a potential barrier, the dark matter particles gain energy, build up in number and eventually exceed the ability of the barrier to contain them. They then explode back into particle space as a big bang. This process repeats to make an endless series of new universes.

• After the big bang exhausts itself, super particles continue to tunnel through the barrier into particle space. The super particles are unstable and break down into particles (protons) with extreme kinetic energy. In doing so, they give up potential energy into particle space. The potential energy gradually builds up to become the dark energy that we observe as the cause of our accelerating, expanding universe. The extreme energy protons are observed as cosmic rays (UHECRs) with energy between the energy of force unification and the Planck energy, which is beyond the GZK cutoff.  

 

Several observables were noted in the paper that support the model (see ref 1, AP4.7D), but nothing would be more compelling as support, than to actually extract a super particle from its barrier shell and observe its properties. A paper proposing this extraction was written (ref 2, AP4.7L) We have found that the properties of the super particle make it useful to us in other areas than the ones that nature found. Here we investigate the possibility that super particles might be used as a stellar drive and energy source.

 

The Problem

In ref 4, AP4.2, a space energy supply system based on a momentum beam and energy from decaying plutonium is described that has application for a starship. It has the advantage that the starship does not have to carry its fuel to use this system. It also has the disadvantage that it requires the construction and maintenance of the momentum beam by people in the solar system to operate successfully. In addition, the maximum speed achievable is severely limited. Model 1, however, hints at the possibility of an energy and reaction mass system based on dark matter that does not require that the starship to carry its fuel, nor does it require the momentum beam and plutonium of the above-mentioned system.

 

Model 1describes a separate vacuum space filled with high vacuum energy as well as high-energy super particles. Furthermore, this space can export its energy into particle space under some circumstances–by tunneling, if the particle energy is low, and spilling if the super particle kinetic energy exceeds the shell potential energy. Thus if we can work out a convenient procedure to release the super particles from behind the barrier where it could be captured, this procedure would provide an exceptionally convenient source of drive particles and energy for a starship. These super particles will be difficult to release, however. They are held inside an extremely high potential barrier, so the only way it can come out is by:

 

• Tunneling the barrier, an extremely low rate process.
• Overflowing the barrier, a process that requires the super particle to achieve extremely high kinetic energy (~10¹⁹ GeV)

 

In this paper we will explore the possibility of building an engine that can add enough energy to super particles to allow them to overflow the barrier and thus provide both thrust and energy for a starship. Here, we build on ideas described in ref 2, AP4.7L.

 

The Solution

In reference 2, AP4.7L, we described a possible method for extracting super particles from behind their barriers for study. Here, we will describe a system that may be useful for extracting super particles from behind their barriers for production of thrust and operational electrical energy for a starship.

 

In reference 2, AP4.7L, we noted that the rate of passage of a super particle through its barrier shell to particle space is:

 

R = T h/2p k_o n_sp / mr particles/sec

 

Where:

k₁= (8p²m(V₀-E)/h²) ^1/2

 

k_o = (8p²m(E)/h²) ^1/2

 

And:

T = 1/(1+V₀²sin²(k₁w)/4E(E-V₀), if E>V

 

            T = 1/(1+V_o² sinh²(k₁w)/4E(V₀-E), if E<V,

           

Clearly the transmission T is very low unless E is close to or greater than V₀.

 

Now in order to get the super particles out, we want to give the super particles enough energy so that they will flow out from behind the barrier at a rate higher than the natural tunneling rate so we can use them for energy and thrust. We don’t have a particle or gamma source with enough energy to knock the super particle out with one ultra high-energy particle or photon, so we must take advantage of resonance within the barrier shell to pump the energy up one low energy quantum at a time to obtain a kinetic energy near the barrier potential energy. This pump must operate fast enough to overcome energy leakage so buildup can occur, however. Thus there are certain conditions that must be satisfied (Wylie, 75).

• We must use electromagnetic energy, which will penetrate the barrier shell because of the zero rest mass of photons, and because it can act on super particle ions to increase their energy.
• We must pump at the resonant frequency to insure the rapid buildup of energy of the particles, and take advantage of resonance magnification.
• We must pump fast enough to overwhelm the damping for low energy super particles due to the potential energy in vacuum space.

With these conditions, we can pump with gamma photons at less than V₀ energy.

 

We note from reference 2, AP4.7L that it may be possible to achieve these conditions On a small scale we found that a possible workable system would be as follows. The dark matter is believed to rotate very slowly around the galactic center because it travels out from the central black hole rather than falling in from the outside under the influence of gravity as visible matter does. Now the visible matter is known to rotate around the galactic center at a speed of ~100 km/s at our radial distance from the center. Earth rotation speed around sun is ~ 30 km/sec, so galactic speed dominates. Thus there is a relative interaction speed between photons and particles of ~100 km/s. In addition, the super particles pass toward the edge of the edge of the galaxy at near light speed (<10¹⁰ cm/sec). This interaction speed might make it difficult to focus our beam of synchrotron generated gammas on one set of super particles long enough to build up a resonance and increase the particle energy enough to cause the super particles to break through the barrier. In order to accomplish this focusing, it will be necessary to shine the gamma ray beam down the evacuated rectangular tube in such a way that the gammas dwell on each volume of space in the tube for at least 10^-14 seconds. Now,

 

            t > L cm / 10¹⁰ cm/sec

 

            Where:

            L = tube length

 

We take L ~ 10 cm as a convenient size for an experiment. Then,

           

t > 10^-9 sec

 

This is much greater than the required dwell time (10^-14 seconds) of the gamma pulse needed for a volume of the rectangular tube, so we will continuously illuminate a tube with a beam H ~1cm high by ΔW ~10^-1 cm wide. We use these specifications because preliminary estimates indicate that they may be feasible with a Bremstrahlung gamma generator. Then the mass flow rate of the particles that should be observed exiting the box is:

 

            μ = T (ΔWH) h/2p k_o n_sp gm/sec

 

And the number of particles exiting the box per second is:

 

            n_o = μ/ m_sp sp/sec

 

Now let us do an example experiment. We take

            T = fraction transmitted

   = 10^-1 since E is Gaussian distributed, so not all particles will exceed V.

            ΔWHL = 0.1 x 1 x 10 cm³

k_o = 10³⁴ 1/cm for an energy mean of 10¹⁹ GeV

n_sp = 10^-7 super particles / cc in a galaxy (Peebles, 123)

            m_sp = 10¹⁹ GeV

So:

            n_o ~ 1 super particle / sec

 

In order to get the super particles out from behind the barrier, we must increase its energy with gammas as is mentioned above. Here we estimate the energy needed to generate these gammas. Note that we must flood the whole ΔWH area with gammas to raise the shell volume to 200 GeV/sp, so the power P needed to operate the gamma generators is as follows.

 

            P = E_g / t_d e

 

Where:

E_g = energy / sp needed to raise the energy of one super particle from operating energy (10¹⁷ GeV) to barrier spillover energy (10¹⁹ GeV)

     = 10² GeV/sp.= 10^-1 erg/sp                            

            t_d = dwell time or time a coherent energy source illuminates the super particle

               = 10^-9 sec/sp

            e = efficiency of conversion of electrical to gamma energy = 10^-2

 

Here we note that enough power must be supplied to ensure that E_g is supplied in a dwell time t_{d ,} so:

 

            P = 10^-1 / 10^-9 x 10^-2  = 10¹⁰ erg/sec = 10³ watts

 

Now let us do an example starship reaction motor. We take 10³ of the above experimental cells for the motor, so W becomes 100 cm. Then the motor parameters become:

T = 10^-1 since E is Gaussian distributed, so not all particles will exceed V.

            WH = 100 x 1 cc

k_o = 10³⁴ 1/cm for an energy mean of 10¹⁹ GeV

n_sp = 10^-7 super particles / cc in a galaxy (Peebles, 123)

c = 3 x 10¹⁰ cm/sec

 

So the thrust that the motor can provide is:

F = starship force or thrust = T (ΔWH) h/2p k_o n_sp c

   = 10⁵ KGF

 

So finally, a starship that weighs 10⁵ KG would operate at 1 G acceleration.

 

In order to get the super particles out from behind the barrier, we must increase its energy with gammas as is mentioned above. Here we estimate the energy needed to generate these gammas. Note that we must flood the whole W H area with gammas to raise the shell volume to 200 GeV/sp, so the power needed to operate the gamma generators is as follows.

 

            P = E_g n_o / t_d e

 

Where:

E_g = energy / sp needed to raise the super particle energy from operating energy (10¹⁷ GeV) to barrier spillover energy (10¹⁹ GeV) = 10² GeV/sp.= 10^-1 erg/sp

n_o = 10³ sp/sec

            t_d = dwell time or time a coherent energy source illuminates the super particle

               = 10^-9 sec/sp

e = efficiency of conversion of electrical to gamma energy = 10^-2

 

Then:

           

            P = 10⁶ watt = 10³ KW 

 

 

P = n_oV_ob (1- E_m/V_ob) E_r / E_r ε e

               =  n_o 0.9 x 10²³ x 10⁶ x 10^-10/ 10^-2 = n_o 0.9 x 10²¹ erg/sec

   =  n_o 0.9 x 10¹⁴ watts 

With

e = efficiency of conversion of electrical to gamma energy

               ~ 10^-2

 

 

For each of the n_o super particles per second that exits the barrier shell, the following amount of energy per second is deposited in particle space.

            P = n_o (sp/sec) 10¹⁹ (GeV/sp) x 1.6 x 10^-3 (erg/GeV) / 10⁷ (erg/J)

               = n_o 10¹² (watt) = n_o 10⁹ (KW)

 

Remember, there is an operational factor of (1- E_m/V_ob) that depends on the average starting energy of the super particle with the proper oscillation characteristics E_m.

This value is determined by the particle distribution in vacuum space. If there are many super particles in the energy zone E_m < E < 10¹⁹, then the system will operate close to the potential energy limit, and

            (1- E_m/V_ob) < 0.01

 

as opposed to the value used before of

            (1- E_m/V_ob) < 0.9

 

Note also that there are two efficiencies involved that were estimated as.

ε = efficiency of increase of super particle energy by the gamma photons.

               ~ 10^-1

e = efficiency of conversion of electrical to gamma energy

               ~ 10^-2

If these were instead of a value

ε = efficiency of increase of super particle energy by the gamma photons.

               ~ 1

e = efficiency of conversion of electrical to gamma energy

               ~ 10^-1

 

Then we would put in ~ n_o 10⁷ (KW) in to get  to get ~ n_o 10⁹ (KW) out. We choose to operate at:

            n_o ~10^-4 (sp/sec)

 

We get a net output of

            P_o = 10⁵ (KW)

 

 

 

Then:

            P ~ 10³ (KW)

 

 

 

 

Now we must have electrical energy to generate the gammas, and to run the starship. We note, however, that the thruster squirts out super particles equally in two directions. If we capture the super particles in one direction, we will get thrust from the uncaptured super particles on one side, and thrust and heat from the captured super particles on the other side. The heat can then be converted into electricity. The electrical power obtained by absorbing half of the super particles in L cm of material is:

 

            P_e = F L E + E_sp n_o

 

            For the above reaction motor,

            F = 10¹¹ gm cm/sec² = force needed to decelerate the particles

            L = 10 cm = thickness of material needed to absorb the super particle.

            E = 10^-1 = thermal efficiency of the heat engine that converts heat to electricity

            E_sp = 10¹⁷ GeV = 10¹⁴ erg = decomposition energy of the super particle

            n_o = 10³ sp/sec = super particle generation rate

 

Thus:

           

P_e = 10¹¹ + 10¹⁷ erg/sec = 10⁷ KW    

 

Thus we can easily generate the electrical energy we need for the gamma generator. Thus we have a complete operational system to run a starship. Note that the thrust and the power needed to obtain it appear reasonable, so this may be a practical as well as a complete operational system to provide energy and thrust for a starship.

 

All of these numbers appear to be achievable but difficult. It should be noted, however, that the internal states of the super particle are not known. These states could absorb the applied energy of the gammas and keep that gamma energy from producing the kinetic energy needed to force passage of the barrier. Thus it is not known if 10^-9 seconds is enough time to force a super particle out over the barrier. Clearly experiments must be run to determine the proper parameters.

 

Summery and Conclusions

We have described a system that may be useful for extracting super particles from behind their barriers for production of thrust and operational electrical energy for a starship. This system has the advantage that it does not require the construction and maintenance of the momentum beam by people in the solar system to operate successfully (see ref 4, AP4.2). In addition, the final speed it can achieve is limited only by the maximum speed limit determined by the planck energy (see ref 5, AP4.7M).

 

 

References

1. L. H. Wald, “AP4.7D HOW TO PROVE A THEORYS CORRECTNESS” www.Aquater2050.com/2015/12/
2. L. H. Wald, “AP4.7L EXTRACTING SUPER PARTICLES FROM THE BARRIER SHELL” www.Aquater2050.com/2016/01/
3. L. H. Wald, “AP4.7 DARK MATTER AND ENERGY-FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS IN ASTROPHYSICS” www.Aquater2050.com/2015/11/
4. L. H. Wald, “AP4.2 THE STELLAR ENERGY SUPPLY SYSTEM” www.Aquater2050.com/2016/3/
5. L. H. Wald, “AP4.7M  VARIABLE LIGHT SPEED IN MODEL 1” www.Aquater2050.com/2015/12/